2047) Did You Know Series (55): "The Epic of Gilgamesh," a Poem from Ancient Mesopotamia, the second oldest surviving text from the Mists of Antiquity:

2047) Did You Know Series (55): "The Epic of Gilgamesh," a Poem from Ancient Mesopotamia, the second oldest surviving text from the Mists of Antiquity:

This post was put up by me after reading the following reports at the instance of my ex-SBI colleague - Satish Srivastava, who also asked me to write a brief on the "Epic of Gilgamesh" poem:

Fragments of tablets of the "Epic of Gilgamesh" and other historical artefacts have been distributed by unscrupulous elements illegally to Collectors all over the world:

Some recent reports:

"The theft and illicit trafficking of ancient artefacts continues to be a key funding source for terrorist groups and other organised criminal organisations," UNESCO said.

- Earlier in 09/2021, the Norwegian police seized nearly 100 Mesopotamian archaeological artefacts, claimed by Iraq, from another collector during a search of their house in south-east Norway. 

- Dozens of Christian manuscripts stolen by ISIS were recovered in Mosul, in Iraq.

- Egypt repatriated 114 smuggled artefacts from France.

- In 07/2021, the US returned to Iraq about 17,000 archaeological treasures dating back 4,000 years and looted in recent decades in an 'unprecedented' restitution of stolen history.

- The illegal acquisition of the "Epic of Gilgamesh'Dream Tablet" by a US Collector in 2019:

In 2019, the "Epic of Gilgamesh' Dream Tablet" was illegally acquired by US citizen David Green, along with  other Iraqi artefacts, to display in the Washington Museum of the Bible. In the same year, the "Gilgamesh Dream Tablet" was seized by US officials from the Museum of the Bible thieves.

This artefact was a portion of a fragment of the "Epic of Gilgamesh" looted from Iraq by ISIL and sold for $1.6 million to Green. 

On 23.09.2021, the US formally returned the illegally imported 3,500-year-old tablet recounting the "Epic of Gilgamesh" to Iraq at the initiative of UNESCO.

UNESCO called the repatriation of the tablet "a significant victory in the fight against the illicit trafficking of cultural objects".

Indian Artefacts returned by the USA:

- On 25.09.2021, during his visit to the USA, Indian Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi was handed over 157 artefacts and antiquities by the US authorities which include a diverse set of items ranging from a 1-1/2 metre bas relief panel of Revanta in sandstone ranging from the 10th CE to the 8.5 cm tall, exquisite bronze Nataraja from the 12th CE.

The items largely belong to the period 11th CE to 14th CE, as well as, historic antiquities like a copper anthromorphic object from 2,000 BC and terracotta vase from the 2nd CE. About 45 antiquities belong to a period before the Common Era.

About half the artefacts are cultural (71), the other half are of figurines which relate to Hinduism (60), Buddhism (16) and Jainism. Most of these items are made of metal, stone and terracotta. The bronze collection mostly contains ornate figurines of Lakshmi, Narayana, Buddha, Vishnu, Siva Parvati and 24 Jain Tirthankaras, Kankalamurti, Brahmi and Nandikesa etc. The motifs include religious sculptures from Hinduism - 3-headed Brahma, Chariot driving Surya, Vishnu & his consorts, Siva as Dakshinamurti, Dancing Ganesha etc.

The Buddhism items include Standing Buddha, Boddhisatva, Manjushri, Tara), while the Jainism sculptures include Jain Tirthankaras, Padmasana Tirthankara, Jaina Choubisi. 

There are secular motifs like the Amorphous couple in Samabhanga, Chowri Bearer, female playing a drum. Also returned are 56 terracotta pieces consisting of Vase 2nd CE, Pair of Deer 12th CE, Sword with sheath 16th CE etc.

These items were returned as part of an on-going effort by Prime Minister Modi to bring back Indian antiquities & artefacts from across the Globe.

About the Epic of Gilgamesh:

The Epic of Gilgamesh is an epic poem from ancient Mesopotamia, regarded as the earliest surviving notable literature and the second oldest religious text, after the Ancient Hindu Texts. 

The literary history of Gilgamesh begins with five Sumerian poems about "Bilgamesh" (Sumerian for "Gilgamesh"), King of Uruk, dating from the Third Dynasty of Ur (2100 BC). 

These independent stories were later used as source material for a combined epic in Akkadian. 

The first surviving version of this combined epic, known as the "Old Babylonian" version, dates to the 18th century BC and is titled after its incipit, "Shūtur eli sharrī" ("Surpassing All Other Kings"). Only a few tablets of it have survived. 

The later "Standard Babylonian" version compiled by "Sîn-lēqi-unninni" dates from the 13th to the 10th centuries BC and bears the incipit "Sha naqba īmuru" ("He who Saw the Abyss", or "He who Sees the Unknown"). 

Approximately two-thirds of this longer, twelve-tablet version have been recovered from various sources. Some of the best sections were discovered in the library ruins of the 7th-century BC Assyrian king Ashurbanipal.

The first half of the story discusses Gilgamesh, King of Uruk, and Enkidu, a wild man created by the gods to stop Gilgamesh from oppressing the people of Uruk. 

After Enkidu becomes civilized through sexual initiation with a prostitute, he travels to Uruk, where he challenges Gilgamesh to a test of strength. 

Gilgamesh wins the contest, however, the two become good friends. 

Together, they make a six-day journey to the legendary Cedar Forest, where they plan to slay the Guardian, "Humbaba the Terrible", and cut down the sacred Cedar. 

The goddess Ishtar sends the "Bull of Heaven" to punish Gilgamesh for spurning her advances. Gilgamesh and Enkidu kill the Bull of Heaven after which the gods decide to sentence Enkidu to death and kill him.

In the second half of the Epic, distress over Enkidu's death causes Gilgamesh to undertake a long and perilous journey to discover the secret of eternal life.

 He eventually learns that "Life, which you look for, you will never find. For when the gods created man, they let death be his share, and life withheld in their own hands".

 Nevertheless, because of his great building projects, his account of Siduri's advice, and what the immortal man Utnapishtim told him about the "Great Flood" (some scholars equate this Flood to that of the Noah's Ark mentioned in the Genesis), Gilgamesh's fame survived well after his death with expanding interest in the Gilgamesh story which has been translated into many languages and is featured in works of popular fiction.

The epic is regarded as a foundational work in the tradition of heroic sagas, with Gilgamesh forming the prototype for later heroes like Hercules, and the epic itself serving as an influence for the Homeric epics.

Historical origins of the Gilgamesh Epic:

The origin of the Epic dates back to over a 2000-year time-frame. 

The earliest Sumerian poems are now generally considered to be distinct stories, rather than parts of a single epic.

 They date from as early as the Third Dynasty of Ur (2100 BC). The Old Babylonian tablets (1800 BC), are the earliest surviving tablets for a single Epic of Gilgamesh narrative. 

The older Old Babylonian tablets and later Akkadian version are important sources for modern translations, with the earlier texts mainly used to fill in gaps in the later texts. 

Although several revised versions based on new discoveries have been published, the epic still remains incomplete. 

Analysis of the Old Babylonian text has been used to reconstruct earlier versions of the epic. The most recent Akkadian version, (also referred to as the Standard Babylonian version), consists of twelve tablets and was edited by "Sîn-lēqi-unninni", who is thought to have lived sometime between 1300 BC and 1000 BC.

Over 15,000 fragments of Assyrian cuneiform tablets were discovered in the Library of Ashurbanipal in Nineve and in possession of private collectors.

In 1998, a piece believed to have contained the first lines of the epic in the storeroom of the British Museum, the fragment, (earlier found in 1878 and dated to between 600 BC and 100 BC), had remained hidden for more than a century since its recovery. The fragment read "He who saw all, who was the foundation of the land, who knew (everything), was wise in all matters: Gilgamesh." 

The discovery of artifacts (2600 BC) associated with Enmebaragesi of Kish, mentioned in the legends as the father of one of Gilgamesh's adversaries, has lent credibility to the historical existence of Gilgamesh. 

The Versions:

Two main versions of the epic have been partially reconstructed: the Standard Babylonian Version, (or "He Who Saw The Deep"), and the Old Babylonian version, (or "Surpassing all other kings"). 

Five earlier Sumerian poems about Gilgamesh have been partially recovered, some with primitive versions of specific episodes in the Babylonian version, others with unrelated stories.

Standard Babylonian Version:

The Standard Babylonian Version was discovered by Hormuzd Rassam in the library of Ashurbanipal in Nineveh in 1853. 

The "Standard Babylonian" refers to a literary style that was used for literary purposes. This version was compiled by "Sin-liqe-unninni" sometime between 1300 and 1000 BC from earlier texts.

The Standard Babylonian version has different opening words, (or incipit), from the older version.

 The older version begins with the words "Surpassing all other kings", while the Standard Babylonian version has "He Who Saw the Deep" (ša naqba īmuru),.

"Deep" refers to the mysteries of the information brought back by Gilgamesh from his meeting with Uta-Napishti (Utnapishtim) about "Ea", the fountain of wisdom. 

Gilgamesh was given knowledge of how to worship the gods, why death was ordained for human beings, what makes a good king, and how to live a good life. The story of Utnapishtim, the hero of the flood myth, can also be found in the "Babylonian epic of Atra-Hasis". The Epic of Gilgamesh is told in 12 tablets.

Old Babylonian version:

This version of the epic, called in some fragments Surpassing all other kings, is composed of tablets and fragments from diverse origins and states of conservation. It remains incomplete in its majority, with several tablets missing. 

Images of some specimens of the tablets of the "Epic of Gilgamesh":